Heraldry

    A complete suit of armor worn by Medieval knights consisted of multiple pieces: the escutcheon, helm, crest, motto, mantle, supporters, torse, and wreath.(1) Essentially, a knight during the Middle Ages would have been covered from head to toe in heavy, metal armor, making it impossible to recognize who was underneath it all. Since literacy rates were low and knights were often observed from a great distance, a system needed to be established in order to visually identify and distinguish knights; today, we refer to this system as heraldry. 

Heraldry can be broadly defined as the art and science of creating, describing, and assigning the armorial bearings to a coat of arms; the term heraldry is derived from the word herald, which referred to the official announcer at a tournament of arms. (2) While the original purpose of heraldry was merely identification of knights during battle, author Nils Olsson says, it later evolved “into a complex system of inherited identification of social class.” (1) 

Considered the most significant piece of a knight’s ensemble, the escutcheon- or shield- would bear the unique ornamentation of arms for identification. The surface of the shield was divided from top to bottom into three parts known as chief, fess, and base; the shield was then further divided from left to right into three more parts: dexter, middle, and sinister. (3) These sections were then decorated with figures, known as charges, and tincture. 

"Kite Shields"
were commonly used
during the early
12th century. 
(4)

"Heater" Shields
were popular during the 
13th & 14th century.
(4)

Tincture refers to the color, metal materials, and furs- such as ermine and squirrel- represented on the shield's surface. Because, once again, the escutcheon would be seen from far away, the colors used on the arms needed to be bold and stand out. The colors gules (red), azure (blue), sable (black), vert (green), and purpure (purple) were known as the principal colors, while metals like gold (or) and silver (argent) were represented with yellow and white. The common charges, or figures, represented on the surface of the shield are often of predatory animals, such as lions, as well as mythological beasts like dragons and griffins. (2) These animals were used to showcase the heroic, chivalric character of the knight.

For more information on heraldry and the coat of arms, check out this short video.(5)

Sources:

1. Olsson, Nils. “The Coat of Arms- A Symbol of the Family.” Swedish American Geneaologist 2018:4. 2018. http://proxy-bloomu.klnpa.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=31h&AN=135007640&site=eds-live&scope=site

2. “Heraldry.” Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia. 2018. http://proxy-bloomu.klnpa.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=funk&AN=he053500&site=eds-live&scope=site

3. “The Elements of Heraldry; containing a clear Definition, and concise historical Account of that ancient, useful, and entertaining Science.” Monthly Review, Vol. 34. http://proxy-bloomu.klnpa.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=h9h&AN=34526904&site=eds-live&scope=site 

    4. “History of Medieval Shields.” Owlcation. https://owlcation.com/humanities/History-of-Medieval- Shields

    5. "Intro to heraldry: Part I - what is a 'coat of arms'?" YouTube. Published 21 January 2018. Accessed 22 October 2020. https://youtu.be/HTioXvZYCtA

Book of Hours 

Fairie Folklore

Gwenhyfar

When thinking about fairies, most go towards what they have seen or heard the most of; Tinker Bell, the Fairy God Mother, and more Disney characters. But what many don’t know, is that fairies (one of many names) have been around for much, much, longer. Throughout history, fairies have been making appearances in all types of medias- movies, novels, plays. They can be seen in all different types of ways as well; many wouldn't think that those small creatures in Harry Potter could easily be considered apart of the Fairie community. To understand more about them, you must start at their beginning. 

The word so many are familiar with, ‘fairy’ actually comes from the Early Modern English word ‘faerie’. Broken down, ‘fae’ itself could be used to describe these beings, with it turning to ‘faerie’ to be able to represent a place, or ‘realm of the fays’ (4). Ultimately, it can be traced to Old French, with ‘fai’ or ‘fee’ coming from the Latin word ‘fata’- one of the fates or guardian spirits (2). But because the ideas of these creatures have gone on for so many years, it isn’t surprising when seeing it spelled in many different ways. 

Fairie Folklore

Fairie folklore is said to have begun in the 1300’s, starting with Chaucer & Gower (1). But, many can trace fairies back to elves; and most believe they are all still one in the same. With over 500 stories just in the middle ages alone, the Fairie Folk have earned there place in the stories that are told (5). Throughout the Medieval Period stories have been riddled with creatures who either bring happiness, or destruction to the lives of those being told. One of the biggest things to point out about these creatures is that they rely heavily on truth. As seen in Lanval by Marie de France, all that was needed of Lanval was that he hold his love with the Faerie Queen close to his heart, not telling a soul. Promises are something that fairies hold closest; breaking a promise with a fairie often meant that you would soon see the side of them you didn't want to (or in some cases, not see them at all). 

Prince Arthur and the Fairy Queen

It’s not easy to give Fairie folk just one look. Described in so many different ways, the Fairie folk are often described as beautiful creatures that would often differ between having human like features, or more spirit-like (2). Stories such as Lanval show Fairies as humans, typically females of exceptional beauty and grace. Or stories can show them in different lights; small dwarf-like creatures, or tiny little elf-like spirits (3). But commonly enough, most stories from the Medieval Period have Fairies as beautiful, ageless women. Shown as extremely attractive, many times they would have wings, long flowing hair, and pale skin (2). It was also common to have them dressed in light colors, such as white. 

Many stories also have the different types of Fair Folk combined, with the more humanoid fairies being of higher status. In these cases, you would see the smaller types such as the more elf or dwarf fairies at their service. Comparable to Lanval, many stories tell of a Fairie Queen. In these cases, you see it similar to the medieval courts, with the Fairie Queen having her own court, her own ladies in waiting, and so on. Many of these positions did the Queens bidding as well; all very similar to the human courts. 

The Quarrel of Titania and Oberon

The Fairie Folklore we love and know has all been thanks to the stories told throughout the ages. While they have grown and changed, the ideas that surround them will always continue to inspire. The middle ages showed a change in the way many Fairies were looked at, and gave them much more of a world to live in as well. 

Work Cited

(1) Harte, Jeremy, and Jeremy Harte. “Medieval Fairies: Now You See Them, Now You Don't.” FairyRoom, 17 May 2012, fairyroom.com/2012/05/medieval-fairies-now-you-see-them-now-you-dont/. 

(2) “Folklore.” Eric Edwards Collected Works, Eric Edwards, 2015, ericwedwards.wordpress.com/category/folklore/. 

(3) The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Fairy.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1 Sept. 1999, www.britannica.com/art/fairy. 

(4) “Fairy.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 13 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy. 

(5) “Chronicling British and Irish Faerie Folklore From The Middle Ages To Modern Day.” Ancient Origins Members Site, members.ancient-origins.net/articles/faerie-folklore-0. 

 

Falconry and Hunting

 Falconry and hunting: a common theme seen through medieval history as well as literature. An astonishing practice, used by Kings and the common people alike. When discussing this topic, several questions come to mind: how were they able to train such majestic creatures? Why falcons? Were they successful? Falconry is a much more fascinating subject than one might think.

Animals as Seen in Medieval Times

Two Falconers from De Arte Venandi Cum Avibus (8)

For backgrounds sake, animals were seen much differently during the Medieval ages than they are now. For starters, they were seen as a human's companion, not as something lower than. The people had the most upright respect for all animals. As stated in the Handbook of Medieval Culture, Volume 1,  "they are good omens and gives us comfort and aid. They serve as food, satisfy our needs, and accompany us on our journeys through life" (1). 

When the medieval period was coming to an end, there was a clear distinction that animals and humans shared a common ground, and it was becoming more and more notable. Humans saw themselves as being in the same field as animals, rather than before when religion had mainly ruled. During those times, humans had seen themselves as above animals. The medieval period brought this shift of balance between the two. Speaking more to medieval literature, animals are typically not seen without being some sort of symbol. A good example is the story by Marie De France, "Lanval". While meeting with the fairy-like queen, atop her tent is a gold eagle, which symbolizes her wealth and status of power. A bird, specifically falcons and hawks, became a prevalent symbol among medieval literature. 

Falcons vs. Hawks

There were two types of using birds for hunting: falconry and hawking. One might see them as the same, however, they had important distinctions between them, and those differences are what made them specific for the hunt. The main types of falcons used for hunting were the Gyrfalcon and Peregrine, while the Goshawk and Sparrow were used for hawking. The main difference between the two subspecies was how they hunted. If you were to hunt in a more wooded are, such as a forest, using a hawk would give the best hunt; falcons were more accustomed to open fields. Falconry, as defined by Shawn E. Carroll,  is "the capturing of quarry using trained birds as prey" (2). Falcons are more narrow while hawks are rounder, making falcons quicker at catching prey. The falcon would search for their prey while flying above, and then swoop down to attack. The falcon could attack their prey at around 200 MPH, and the first blow is often deadly. Albert Magnus writes, "...that in descending it sounds like a raging wind" (3). It is important to note that females were often used for hunting as they were larger and stronger than males. Another important note is that the type of hunt depended on the falcon. Certain types of falcons would pursue certain types of prey; if the hunter wanted larger prey, they would use a larger falcon such as a Gyrfalcon or Peregrine. Smaller falcons lead to smaller prey. 

Falcons and Hunting in Medieval Culture

Portrait of a Gyrfalcon by Lombard Master in the 16th century (9)   

While falcons were seen as a common thread among Kings and common folk alike, there would be certain falcons that were reserved for Kings and the nobility. As stated earlier, the two best types of falcons used for medieval falconry were the Gyrfalcon and the Peregrine. Being that they were the best, they would be strictly for royalty. The Gyrfalcon was the most valued falcon there was. They range from 50-63cm with a wingspan of around 105-31cm (3).
Their substantial wingspan allowed them to have more strength and power when it came to attacking their prey. Falcons would be sent to other kingdoms aboard ships, and would also be given as gifts to royalty. Falcons also represented one's status. Depending on size, Falcons provided a heavy price; which is why bigger birds were often seen with the nobility. As pointed out in Hunting Law and Ritual in Medieval English Literature by William Perry Marvin, hunting was seen as a way of warfare. Marvin points out an excellent example in the story Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, when King Bertilak made a deal to trade all of the game he kills while on his hunts in exchange for the prizes Sir Gawain receives (4). 

Training and Sport

 Emperor Frederick II from the "Manfred Manuscript" (10)

The most important step when it came to training falcons was to build trust. It was essential that the falcon and its owner had a relationship, so the falcon would return to them. In medieval times, a common trust-building practice was called "waking". The process of waking, described by falconer Ruth Ligget, included not letting the bird sleep until a relationship was built (5). This also meant that the owner had to stay awake with the falcon, which could be up to three or so days. Though not practical, it was the quickest method. Another method was to simply leave food in your hand; which is easier said than done, however, as the falcon would be weary to feed from the human's hand.
Once trust was built, lures would be commonly used as a way to practice the falcon into chasing their prey. Peregrines, as stated earlier, were commonly reserved for royalty. This was because they are the fastest animal on the planet, making for a quick and successful hunt. To put into perspective of just how fast they truly are, I have attached a YouTube video below, where you can see a Peregrine use its various skills to protect her nest. In the clip from "The Savage Edge" which aired on Discovery Channel, the Peregrine uses her sharp eyesight to pick her prey from over a kilometer away, as well as her cunning speed to take out enemies that are five times her body weight (7). I have attached another YouTube video, where you are able to see the skills of the Gyrfalcon. In this video, aired by BBC Earth Unplugged, the Gyrfalcon races a Bentley Continental GT Speed, and wins. The bird goes over 50 MPH in order to catch the bait used on the car. While in flight, she is seen to go in different directions, trying to find where the clearest wind path was in order to dive (6).

Video Link (6): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFaHMKqK8UQ

Video Link (7): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uapP1yldldk

Today

Falcons have shown great importance to medieval culture. They provided food and became companions with the people. They are mighty, and it is astonishing all that they were able to do. Since then, falcons are seen as one of the more respected types of birds, and are used as symbols of power, wealth and agility in literature. It is important to understand, however, why they should be even more respected, as they were a staple part of our living. 

Sources

1. Handbook of Medieval Culture. Volume 1 : Handbook of Medieval Culture, edited by Albrecht Classen, De Gruyter, Inc., 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bloomsburguniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1712977.

2. Carroll, Shawn E. Richard III Society – American Branch, www.r3.org/richard-iii/15th-century-life/15th-century-life-articles/ancient-medieval-falconry-origins-functions-in-medieval-england/.

3. “The Birds, Their Training, and the Sport of Falconry.” The Kings and Their Hawks: Falconry in Medieval England, by ROBIN S. OGGINS, Yale University Press, New Haven; London, 2004, pp. 10–35. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq2wm.7. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

4. “Blood, Law, and Venery.” Hunting Law and Ritual in Medieval English Literature, by William Perry Marvin, NED - New edition ed., Boydell & Brewer, Woodbridge, Suffolk; Rochester, NY, 2006, pp. 131–157. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt9qdjfd.8. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

5. Modern History TV. "Medieval birds of prey: How Did Knights Hunt With Birds of Prey?" YouTube, published July 6, 2018. Accessed October 22, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJIMhsoNjOE

6. "How Fast is a Gyrfalcon? Earth Unplugged". YouTube, published April 19, 2017. Accessed October 22, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFaHMKqK8UQ

7. "The Peregrine Falcon a 'living missile'." YouTube, published April 29, 2015. Accessed October 22, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uapP1yldldk

8. II, Frederick. Detail of Two Falconers from De Arte Venandi Cum Avibus, 1240s. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor. 

9. “Now The Courts of Europe.” Portrait of a Gyrfalcon, Viewed ||| Animals ||| Sotheby's n09107lot724bgen, www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2014/the-courts-of-europe-n09107/lot.108.html.

10. “Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Oct. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor. 

Troubadours

 Who are Troubadours?

The earliest known troubadour, whose works have survived, is Duke William IX of Aquitaine. Click here for a rendition of one of Duke William IX of Aquitaine’s (also recorded as Guillaume IX d’Aquitaine) songs (2). The cities of Aquitaine and Poitou were seen to be origin cities of troubadours which then spread between other cities and northern Italy and France. Southern France comprised of Troubadours who were often nobility and kings performing for big assemblies or in tournaments of songs where they competed against each other (6). Northern France called their poets trouveres, which comprised of members of the clergy or middle class (5).

                                                                            What is Troubadour Poetry?

An example of troubadour poem
out of a chansonnier.
Source 6: "Francais 844" page 21. 

Troubadour poetry is a type of lyrical poem that is secular in terms of content and dates back to the 11^th century. The word troubadour has many presumed early derivations, but most origin definitions mean to compose. Originally, most troubadour songs were written in the Occitan language and later translated to early French and Italian in the spread of popularity (2).

Troubadour poetry or songs, much like the medieval literature we have studied poses ideals of chivalry and courtly love. The seven subgenres of Troubadour poetry included: albas- dawn songs that warned two lovers of the jealous husband’s approach, cansos- love songs, canso de crozada- crusader songs, dansas or balladas- dance songs, ensenhamens- didactic poems, gaps- boasting songs, and maldits- a song of a lover complaining of a woman’s behavior (2).

The Composition of Troubadour Poetry and Songs

The “golden age” of Troubadour poetry dates from the mid-eleventh century to the early thirteenth century but continues into the late thirteenth century. Those who study classical rhetoric see that Troubadour poetry follows the 5 parts of composition: inventio- appropriate material, disposition- arrangement of material, elocutio- embellishment (either trobar leu- light, trobar clus- hermetic, or trobar ric- rich), memoria- memorization, and then pronuciato- the delivery, which was in song in most cases for this type of poetry (1). There were also 3 styles of rhetoric at the time: gravis- serious, mediocris- polite and decorous, and adtenuata- coarse or vulgar (1). As you can see, the style combined with the subgenres of Troubadour poetry made for some very interesting and enjoyable entertainment in the medieval period. 

An example of a Troubadour composition
Source 3: "Francais 844" page 28

Although Troubadour poetry seems to be just a thing of the past, it heavily influenced later works in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Some of the best-known troubadour poets included Bernart d’Auriac, Joan Mirahas, Raiman Gaucelm, and Joan Esleve (2). Today, we have some troubadour compositions that were composed in manuscripts called chansonniers (5). As Troubadour poetry grew in popularity and made its way down the caste system, it was not uncommon for women to join in on the fun. A well-known author, Dante Alighieri, writer of The Divine Comedy, adopted the stillnovist ideal that derived from troubadour poetry. Whereas Troubadour poetry was emotional and physical, stillnovist ideals were intellectual and often metaphysical (2).

There are not many websites of Troubadours that I can send you, however, if you want to click through a French Medieval Chansonnier Manuscript, click here. If you are also interested in learning more about the composition and history of Troubadour poetry here is a link to a great book. This book is available on the BU library site!

Works Cited

1. Abraham, Mary C. (2010) "The Rhetoric of the Troubadours," Musical Offerings: Vol. 1 : No.1 ,Article 1. DOI:                         10.15385/jmo.2010.1.1.1 Available at:                                                                                                                             https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol1/iss1/1

2. Classen, Albrecht : Handbook of Medieval Culture, edited by Albrecht Classen, De Gruyter, Inc., 2015.                                 ProQuest Ebook Central,  https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bloomsburguniv-ebooks/detail.action?   docID=1713054

3. “Français 844.” Gallica, Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits.,                                                         gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b84192440/f21.item.

4. “Guillaume IX d’Aquitaine : Farai Un Vers Pos Mi Sonelh.” YouTube, uploaded by Eric Boulanger, 9             Apr.                      2011, www.youtube.com/watch?v=KhlCtF7JJ6Q.

5. Haines, John. Eight Centuries of Troubadours and Trouvères : The Changing Identity of Medieval Music,                               Cambridge University Press, 2004. ProQuest Ebook Central,                                                                                        https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/bloomsburguniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=266561.

6. “Troubadours and Trouvères.” Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, Jan. 2018, p.                                                             1; EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?                                                                                                       direct=true&db=funk&AN=tr092300&site=eds-live&scope=site.

        

Merlin

  

Merlin

Background Information

Merlin, who is also referred to as "Merlin the Prophet-Magician" is a fictional magical figure created in the 12th century. Merlin is said to be the son of the Devil. The characters first appearance was in 1136 in "Historia Regum Britannia". He became popular in the middle ages and still to this day is a popular figure in literature, and other forms of pop culture. Some of Merlins most important attributes include the ability to "appear and disappear at will, read minds and change physical appearances"(1). Merlin is most closely tied with the character King Arthur, who he ultimately assists with the help of his magical powers. In mediaeval times, Merlin is "not a figure of legend but apparently documented, long-lost maker of British history" (1).

Merlin in French Mediaeval Literature

In 1155, the legend of Merlin becomes popular in French literature as well. The popularity stemmed from translations of "Historia Regum Britannia". The French translation that sparked Merlin's popularity in French culture was named Roman de Brut, translated by Robert Wace. It is said that the translation of this story in French would not have been as popular if it wasn't for the first extant account of the Round Table (2). Wace's translation of Historia inspired many French writers to write their own stories of Merlin, which became very popular. The first French writer to take advantage of the Merlin character in their own romance was Robert de Boron. This sparked a prolific number of Merlin romances to be written (2). Robert de Boron's account of Merlin was unlike the earlier accounts of Merlin, because it introduced a spiritual background for Merlin. This is said to reflect Boron's religious views.

Merlin in German Medieval Literature

With Merlin being popular all over the world, one of the places he was written about the most was Germany. The first time Merlin appears in medieval German literature is in a long verse romance called "Der Theure Morlin" (2). This poem was heavily influenced by the story written in France by Robert de Boron. This story came about a century after de Boron's story of Merlin. All over the world there is a usual agreement between everyone who writes about Merlin that he never dies. However, German author Johann has Merlin killed by the protagonist of one of his stories. This was seen as something very odd by readers who know the legend of Merlin. Johann is also the only author to focus more on Merlin having qualities of the devil, rather than good qualities. 

Merlin in current pop culture

The legend of Merlin is still written, and talked about to this day. He continues to be a major figure in medieval style literature. In 2008 a television show titled, "Merlin" aired on BBC as a visual representation of the legend. The television show features, "the traditional narrative of mentor–student  replaced by one involving a servant–master dynamic" (3). While the television show does bring back old elements of the Merlin story, it also modernizes it to appeal to a more modern audience. The television show focuses a lot on the relationship between Merlin, and King Arthur. There are also recent books and plays that feature the character Merlin as well. His popularity has not died off since the middle ages. Merlin also appears in recent medieval videogames such as Runescape.

Works Cited

1. Lawrence-Mathers, Anne (2012). The true history of Merlin the magician. Yale University Press.
Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt32bwp5.


2. Weiss, Adelaide (1933). Merlin in German literature. The Catholic University of America.
Retrieved form https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000741444&view=1up&seq=1


3. Miller, Andrew (13 May, 2019). The avuncular master: the figure of Merlin and modern notions of meritocratic education. University of Illinois Press.
Retrived from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-bloomu.klnpa.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=16&sid=66a07ffb-7a64-4b53-9e14-80a573442f7f%40sessionmgr101

Eleanor of Aquitaine

1. Eleanor of Aquitaine

Who was Eleanor of Aquitaine?

Eleanor of Aquitaine was born to William X, Duke of Aquitaine, and Aenor de Chatellerault in the year 1122. She was raised doing the activities that were normal for girls her age such as weaving, spinning, and domestic work, but was also educated, physically active in sports like hunting and hawking, and even traveled with her father on business. Eleanor was put in a very bad situation where the majority of her family was dead, and with her father’s death only growing nearer, she was set to marry to protect all that she was the heiress to, all of her father’s wealth and land.

First Marriage

After being married off to King Louis VI’s second son, Louis VII, his eldest son, Philip, died, which left Eleanor’s husband the heir. Louis VII, however, was incompetent and submissive to the point where his troops respected and listened to Eleanor more during his leading of the Second Crusade to the Holy Land. Joshua Marks sheds light on this in his article “Eleanor of Aquitaine” which expresses how during the march Eleanor did more for their troops by presenting herself to and discussing with Raymond of Poitiers, as doing this lead to the conquering of Aleppo. During many appearances of Eleanor and Louis VII in history, he was always behind her as more subservient and less of an equal. They eventually were granted an annulment on the grounds of consanguinity, which basically meant they were third cousins and when it didn’t work out they used that as an excuse to end the marriage so that she could remarry if she pleased. Which she did.

Second Marriage

2. Eleanor's Seal

After her estrangement from Louis VII, which sadly did separate her from her daughters, Marie de Champagne and Alix of France, since laws and rulings were completed male oriented, their daughters were technically his property, Eleanor remarried Henry II of England. Within two years he was crowned the king of England and Eleanor his Queen. Henry II was much less submissive than Louis VII and she was unable to control him as easily as she could her former husband. Alison Weir discusses the reality of marriage for women like Eleanor in this time in her biography Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life, which expresses that marriage was a political strategy and that the girls were often raised in convents, married off at 13 or 14 (sometimes earlier) and were almost always given rare say in how they or their wealth were to be disposed of in marriage. (Weir 6) Eleanor was not one of these girls. Even at only 15 she was wiser, calmer, and better prepared to rule than most men could ever wish to be. Henry II’s mother, Empress Matilda, was similar to Eleanor in her yearning for independent power, which Eleanor is deliberate in demonstrating as after she was married she continued to rule her father lands, ran farms and businesses, and even exercised political power. Alongside Empress Matilda, Eleanor was among the very few notable exceptions to society’s norms of male power and control.

Henry II

3. Young Eleanor painting

At this time, it was very common for older men to marry younger women, in the case of Henry II and Eleanor it was opposite. Katherine Bailey discusses much of Eleanor’s struggles with her second marriage in her article “A History of Eleanor of Aquitaine” as seen as she discusses the age difference as Eleanor was 30 years old to her husband’s 18 at their wedding. This was not normal as she was much older than him and with that age her ability to become pregnant with an heir is doubted and her loyalty to her husband is doubted as some believe she was bedded by his father Geoffrey of Anjou. However, the couple did go on to have 8 children. During the years she was having children, Eleanor contributed to the management of her own domains, Aquitaine and Poitou. Given that her husband was much younger, and that Eleanor could be hard to handle, Henry II was known to have affairs as he wished and this negatively affected Eleanor greatly. (Bailey) While they both had affairs, Henry II’s were much more obvious as one resulted in his bastard Geoffrey, who went on to live with them. (Weir 173) The extent of her role in Henry’s rule is unknown as Henry II was less malleable then Louis VII, which lead to their inevitable separation and general clash in later years of their marriage.

The Revolt

Eleanor and Henry II’s sons held a revolt against her husband. Some sources say it was their children who planned it, while others claim it to Eleanor. Her inherent thirst for power was obvious in her ability to adapt to different courts and kingdoms, as well as find her own way to survive in both unhappy marriages she was in merely for political gain. After the revolt was ended, Henry II had Eleanor imprisoned for 16 years until his death. (sad story I know, but it turns around :) )

Eleanor’s Passions

Eleanor was a very productive queen. She was active politically, socially, and economically. She represents what women could not be in the medieval time. She encompassed drive and desire to learn and grow and to bring her people with her. Rachelle Suissa said it best in her paper Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Remarkable Influence in Medieval History when she said, “Her enormous influence derived not only from her wealth but from her immense desire to pursue knowledge and culture at every junction.” Eleanor was passionate about poetry, literature, music, and even sex. Eleanor is often considered one of the most sexually liberated women of her time. She was said to have surrounded herself with poets and artists that she would partake in affairs with quite obviously, yet still much more remote than Henry II’s. It is said that during the period after Eleanor separated from Henry II, that she filled her own home with music and art and literature and that her actions of this time were what led to her “influence on the development of the concept of courtly love and chivalric poetry” (Mark) The poets that were surrounding Eleanor were honing in to the genres of courtly love poetry and chivalric poetry and developing with encouragement of Eleanor herself.

4. Eleanor of Aquitaine Comedy Music Video

HER Power

Another aspect of her life that took a lot of her attention was the work she did for her lands and the people she ruled over. The historical evidence of Eleanor’s true ruling was clear in her appointments, letters, purchases, and personal records that were well documented and unambiguous. During the years of Eleanor’s marriage to Henry II, she was heavily involved with the lands of her father that she ruled over since the age of 15. Elanor did all she could for her land by reaching out to barons that had been exiled, restoring lands, and restarting the fairs and events that brought joy to the people. (Weir 173) After Louis II’s death, Richard I became king and with this Eleanor knew she could manipulate him easier and enact her own policies through Richard. Evidentially Richard ended up leaving England for the Third Crusade and left Eleanor to rule his kingdom entirely. Eleanor won.

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1.     Bailey, Katherine. “A History of Eleanor of Aquitaine.” British Heritage, Irish Studio, 23 Apr. 2020, britishheritage.com/history/history-eleanor-aquitaine.

2.     Mark, Joshua J. “Eleanor of Aquitaine.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 29 Mar. 2019, www.ancient.eu/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine/.

3.     Suissa, Rachelle. “Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Remarkable Influence in Medieval ...” Research Gate, Dec. 2006, www.researchgate.net/publication/307593730_Eleanor_of_Aquitaine_A_Remarkable_Influence_in_Medieval_History.

4.     Weir, Alison. Eleanor of Aquitaine. Ballantine, 1999.

5.     (4) HistoryTeachers. “Eleanor of Aquitaine (“Happy Ever After” by Julia Fordham).” https://youtu.be/ysU_ezDYt8A Youtube. 24 April 2010.

6.     (1) Mary Evans Picture Library

7.     (3) Anthony Frederick Sandys. “Queen Eleanor” 1858. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine#/media/File:Anthony_Frederick_Sandys_-_Queen_Eleanor.JPG

8.     (2) Eleanor, by the Grace of God, Queen of the English, Duchess of the Normans.

Medieval Monks and Monasteries

 The Lives of Medieval Monks 

                                                                  By: Lindsay Cocker  

Introduction to the Monk:

Monks were people that existed to live for and to spread the word of God. Every move, every breath, every activity was to be devoted to Christ's word.  Author of The World of Medieval Monasticism: Its History and Forms of Life, Gert Melville et. al precisely describes a monks purpose as he says, "One could thus see monks as points on a moral compass, as exemplary figures, and as models for the fact that hope of salvation could be realized." (2)They made promises to live a minimal life which included very few items, days spent at all church services, and vows of celibacy and silence; all of this to make a role model example out of themselves and to promote a faithful life to Christianity (3). To set them apart from everyone else, monks were often referred to as Hermits and lived lives that were unlike everyone else which meant different clothing, rules, and of course daily routines. 

History:

First Monks in Egypt (9)

Monks and monasteries came about after people became so devoted to Christianity, they felt they could no longer serve Christ in the way that felt most appropriate living amongst their communities and families. In third-century Egypt, people started to believe that they needed to be freed from the shackles that bound them to earth's life and needed an escape to fulfill their religious lives. Thus, they began to flee to deserts past the Nile, where nobody can find them. Bishops began to support this and had small shacks built as minimalistic shelters for the people who vowed to take on this life. Here, is where they were able to live a life of what Melville et al. describes as a life of, "[C]ontemplation, of penitence, and bodily chastisement, of sexual continence and manual labor." (2) All of this to be able to best serve their purpose on earth, which was complete devotion to Christ. 

Monastery Culture:

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    First and foremost, Monks resided in secluded huts called, monasteries where they could remove themselves from the world and live life fully devoted to God. Monasteries fostered a place of apostolic, cultural, and educational values that correlated with that of Christianity(1). People who were recruited to be monks were often met with the offer of a decent education that included learning math, reading, writing, and Latin. With this, and the prestige surrounding a life devoted to Christ, was a highly respected career. However, it was not an easy lifestyle. When one becomes a monk, they took a vow of silence; this means they are not to engage in conversation with anyone and when they do, it should not be with anyone outside of the monastery and only for religious reasons (3).

When a person made the decision to take on this way of life, they would enter a monastery where many other monks lived. Each monk had a cell, but they all lived, prayed, ate, and engaged in religious acts under the same roof. This was convenient because it was all people who were living with the same purpose. A monastery was known as an "enclosed space" which was secluded. In these closed spaces, a monk engaged in hard manual labor and often went without so they can give to the surrounding community. This allowed them to be charitable, as directed by the bible (2). Much of this work was overseen by the abbot who lived within the monasteries. The abbot was the person in charge of all of the monks; the supervisor of everything that went on under the roof of the monastery (2).

The Abbot:

Saint Pachomius (7)
founder of the monastic life

 
 Within a monastery full of monks was a single person called, "The Abbot", who was the superior monk (3). The very first abbot was named, Saint Pachomius and he ultimately started the fulfillment of the abbot. In Medieval Christianity: A New History by Kevin Madigan, an abbot is described as, "[A] spiritual father to each of the monks, with whom he is expected to have a genuinely paternal relationship. He represents Christ to his monastic sons." The abbot served as the person who leads the other monks through a life of deliverance and obedience to God. Through this leadership and the culture of the monasteries, the monks' ultimate goal was to save their souls (1). The abbot lived among the monks to make sure they followed all of the rules and regulations associated with this life, but they also traveled among monasteries as they were socially and politically involved in government. It was an expectation in the monasteries that when a monk broke a rule, the brother monks were to notify the abbot. This was considered one of their duties. 

    

    Moreover, abbots were chosen via election in the 14th and 15th centuries. In The Abbots and Priors of Late Medieval and Reformation England, a review by Katherine Harvey, it is explained that there were sometimes issues with these elections. The article says, "[E]lections could be expensive and time-consuming affairs, and sometimes resulted in fierce disputes. They also provoked a range of attitudes, from religious sincerity to naked ambition, and also outright cynicism..." (4). It is safe to say these processes did not always come easy, which is interesting considering the vows monks make to their life of silence, charity, and every other Christian-belief. Nonetheless, the monasteries always had an abbot or multiple abbots to ensure the monks followed the life they chose to live.

A Monk's Daily Routine:

A monk's daily routine, at first glance, is a day fully devoted to prayer and acts for God. Monks engaged in godly activity many hours a day, seven days a week. In The World of Medieval Monasticism: Its History and Forms of Life, Gert Melville, et. al, describes a day in the life of a monk as, "The order of the day was firmly established, alternating between periods of prayer, work, eating, and sleeping." (2) Typically, monks did not leave the monastery without special permission. Everything they needed to be a successful monk resided within the walls of the monastery. They knew to start their days when the sun rose and then immediately cleaned themselves up and engaged in prayer and readings, then they worked, engaged with more prayer, and worked. Eating was intertwined in there, as well. It is important to note that while monks lived very simple lives without many physical objects, they never went without good food to eat, although meat was a rarety (3). 

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(3)

Clothing and Possessions:

Much like everything in a monk's life was quite intentional, so was his dress. In the Middle Ages, dress often symbolized one's class and for monks, this was especially important (5). Between 1334 and 1342, there was much discussion over the dress of monks. Many general chapter meetings were spent discussing the technicalities of a monk's clothing and money. Although not everything was always fully agreed upon, some parts were. These parts are outlined in Monastic Dress in the Middle Ages: Precept and Practice by Barbara F. Harvey, she says, "[G]arments such as the tunic were to be circular and not have openings in the front or at the sides; colours were to be sober and in the case of outer garments black; fashions tending to reveal the shape of the body or of a limb were to be 

avoided, as was every kind of extravegance and vainglory" (5). In short, monks were to dress in clothing that was neutral, seemingly low in price, and modest at all times and while their clothing may seem simple, they certainly had many details they had to pay attention to appease the church leaders. 

Important Points:

1. Monks devoted their entire lives to God and Christ's word.

2. They devoted their lives to live purposefully for God and did this by living in monasteries secluded from the rest of the world.

3. They lived minimalistically.

4. Abbots that lived within the monastery were superior to the rest of the monks.

5. Their clothing was purposeful and it portrayed a simple life. 

Works Cited

(1) Madigan, Kevin. Medieval Christianity : A New History. Yale University Press, 2015. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=933087&site=eds-live&scope=site.

(2) Melville, Gert. The World of Medieval Monasticism: Its History and Forms of Life, Liturgical Press, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy-bloomu.klnpa.org/lib/bloomsburguniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4573283

(3) Cartwright, Mark. The Daily Life of Medieval Monks. 20 Oct. 2020, www.ancient.eu/article/1293/the-daily-life-of-medieval-monks/.

(4) Harvey, Katherine. “The Abbots and Priors of Late Medieval and Reformation England.” The Abbots and Priors of Late Medieval and Reformation England | Reviews in History, reviews.history.ac.uk/review/2060.

(5) Harvey, Barbara F. Monastic Dress in the Middle Ages: Precept and Practice. Trustees of the William Urry Memorial Fund (c/o the Chapter Library of Canterbury Cathedral), 1988.

(6) Monks Clothes in the Middle Ages, www.lordsandladies.org/monks-clothes-in-the-middle-ages.htm.

(7) “Saint Pachomius.” Saint Pachomius - New World Encyclopedia, www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Saint_Pachomius.

(8) Jones, Robert. “Inside a Medieval Monastery.” All About History, www.historyanswers.co.uk/medieval-renaissance/inside-a-medieval-monastery/.

(9)  Tharwat, Hany. “ON THE WAY TO THE FIRST CHRISTIANS OF EGYPT: THE RED SEA MONASTERY OF St. PAUL AND St. ANTHONY.” Portraits of Egypt, 18 May 2018, portraitsofegypt.com/en/english-on-the-way-to-the-first-christians-of-egypt-the-red-sea-monastery-of-st-paul-and-st-antony/.